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Analog Electronics: Chapter 7 - Basic Structure and Working of a Battery

Have you ever wondered how your TV remote, wall clock, or flashlight comes to life with just a small battery inside? Behind that tiny metal cylinder lies a fascinating process where chemical reactions create electric current. In this chapter of our Analog Electronics series, we’ll explore how a battery works — how it stores energy in chemical form and then converts it into electrical energy whenever you connect it to a circuit.

Inside a battery, there are three main parts: the anode, the cathode, and the electrolyte. The anode is usually made of zinc, the cathode is manganese dioxide (MnO₂), and the electrolyte is a chemical paste, such as potassium hydroxide (KOH), which contains mobile ions.

Zinc is chosen as the anode because of its low reduction potential. In simple words, zinc atoms prefer to lose electrons rather than gain them, making them an excellent source of electrons. On the other hand, the cathode is made of a material like MnO₂, which has a high reduction potential, meaning it readily accepts electrons. This contrast is what allows the battery to function.

What Happens When the Battery is Connected?

At the anode, zinc undergoes oxidation, meaning it loses electrons:

These electrons cannot pass through the liquid electrolyte. Instead, they leave the zinc electrode, flow through the external circuit, and power a connected device, such as a bulb. This flow of electrons through the wire is what we call electric current.

Electrons vs Ions — The Two Different Paths

Before going further, it’s important to understand the difference between electrons and ions, since both play key roles in how a battery works. Electrons are tiny subatomic particles with a negative charge, and they move very easily in metals like copper wires. Ions, on the other hand, are atoms or groups of atoms that have gained or lost electrons. If an atom loses electrons, it becomes a positively charged cation (like Zn²⁺). If it gains electrons, it becomes a negatively charged anion (like OH⁻).

Unlike electrons, ions are much larger and cannot move through metal wires. They can only migrate through the electrolyte, which is specially designed to let them move and maintain charge balance in the battery. So, while electrons flow outside the battery through the circuit, ions move inside the battery through the electrolyte. Both flows are necessary for the battery to function.

Think of it this way: electrons take the “outside road” through the wires to do work, while ions take the “inside road” through the electrolyte to keep the battery balanced. Without the electrolyte, charges would build up: the anode would become too positive with Zn²⁺ ions, and the cathode would become too negative with incoming electrons, eventually stopping the flow. The electrolyte prevents this by carrying ions to balance the charges.

Ion Movements Inside the Battery

When zinc gives off Zn²⁺ ions, these ions stay in the electrolyte near the anode. To maintain neutrality, OH⁻ anions from the electrolyte migrate toward the anode to neutralize the positive Zn²⁺ buildup. At the same time, other cations (like H⁺ or Mn-containing intermediates, depending on the chemistry) move toward the cathode, where electrons are arriving from the external circuit.

It’s important to note that Zn²⁺ ions do not travel to the cathode. Since the cathode is positive, Zn²⁺ ions are repelled and remain in the electrolyte. Meanwhile, other ions like OH⁻ move appropriately to balance charge. This way, the electrolyte ensures continuous reactions without direct zinc migration to the cathode.

Reduction at the Cathode

At the cathode, the electrons that traveled through the external wire finally arrive and participate in a reduction reaction. The MnO₂ at the cathode reacts with electrons and hydroxide ions from the electrolyte:

This reaction consumes the incoming electrons, allowing the circuit to remain continuous. Electrons outside the battery and ions inside the electrolyte work together, creating a seamless flow that powers devices.

Putting It All Together

Here’s the full picture:

• Anode (Zinc): Zinc atoms oxidize into Zn²⁺, releasing electrons into the external circuit.
• Electrons: Travel through the wire to do useful work, like lighting a bulb or running a motor.
• Electrolyte (KOH): Allows ions to move inside the cell so that charges don’t build up and reactions can continue.
• Cathode (MnO₂): Accepts electrons and undergoes reduction.

In short, the battery constantly converts chemical energy into electrical energy. Zinc releases electrons (oxidized), manganese dioxide accepts electrons (reduced), electrons travel outside, ions move inside, and together this system keeps the current flowing.

Conclusion

A battery is a simple yet brilliant device that converts chemical energy into electrical energy through redox reactions. At the anode, oxidation releases electrons; at the cathode, reduction consumes them. While electrons travel through the external circuit to power devices, ions move inside the electrolyte to maintain charge balance. Together, these movements keep the current flowing continuously.
In short, every battery — from the one in a flashlight to the one in a smartphone — operates on the same fundamental principle: chemical reactions driving the steady flow of electrons that power our world.

Analog Electronics: Chapter 6 - Understanding Electric Potential and Voltage

In the world of analog electronics, everything begins with charges and the fields they create.

To truly understand voltage — the backbone of every circuit — we must first understand what electric potential means.

🔹 What is Electric Potential?

Every charge in nature, called a source charge (Q), produces an electric field around it. This field extends theoretically up to infinity, though it becomes weaker as we move farther away.

Now, imagine bringing a very small positive test charge into this electric field.

If this test charge starts from infinity — a point so far away that the source charge’s field is negligible — the electric potential at infinity is taken as zero.

When you move the test charge from infinity to a point at distance R from the source charge, you must do work against the field (if the source charge is positive). This work done per unit positive charge in bringing the test charge from infinity to that point is called the electric potential at that point.

Mathematically,

where
V = electric potential (in volts),
W = work done (in joules), and
q = test charge (in coulombs).

🔹 Conceptual Understanding

If the source charge is positive, a positive test charge will be repelled by it.
To move it closer, you must apply an external force — this effort (work) gets stored as electric potential energy.

Thus, electric potential at a point tells us how much work per unit charge is required to bring a positive test charge from infinity to that point in the source’s electric field.

⚙️ Example Setup

Let’s make this more concrete with a simple example:

1. Setup:

• You have a source charge Q.
• It produces an electric field around it.
• You bring a test charge from infinity to a point A.

Suppose the work done per unit charge (from infinity to A) = 12 V
→ Electric potential at point A, VA = 12V.

• Now, move the test charge even closer to a new point B.
  Work done per unit charge (from infinity to B) = 14 V
  → Electric potential at point B, VB = 14V.

🔹 Voltage (Potential Difference)

The voltage or potential difference between two points tells us how much extra work per unit charge is needed to move a test charge from one point to another.

Mathematically,

Substituting the values:

This means the potential difference between B and A is 2 volts.

🧠 Interpreting the Result

• Electric potential at A (12 V):
  Energy required per coulomb to bring the test charge from infinity to point A.
• Electric potential at B (14 V):
  Energy required per coulomb to bring the test charge from infinity to point B.
• Voltage (2V between A and B):
  Additional 2 joules of work are needed to move 1 coulomb of charge from A to B.

✅ In words:
If it takes 12 V to bring a charge from infinity to A, and 14 V to bring it from infinity to B, then the potential difference between B and A is 2 V.
You must perform an additional 2 J of work per coulomb to move the charge from A to B.

⚡ Additional Concept: Effect of Charge on Potential

The electric potential at any point doesn’t depend only on distance — it also depends on how much charge is present at the source.
If we have two different source charges, say Qₐ and Qᵦ, where Qₐ > Qᵦ, then the point around Qₐ will have a higher potential than the same point around Qᵦ.

This happens because a larger charge produces a stronger electric field, which exerts a greater force on any test charge placed near it.
To move a test charge in this stronger field, more work must be done per unit charge to bring it from infinity to that point — and this extra work shows up as higher potential.

Remember,

Since the force between charges increases with the amount of charge and decreases with distance, the work done (and therefore potential) also depends on these two factors.

So, when we compare two points around different charges, the one near the stronger charge will always have higher potential, because it takes more energy per unit charge to reach that region.

🔹 Summary

• Electric Potential (V):
  Work done per unit positive charge to bring it from infinity to a point in an electric field (without acceleration).

• Voltage / Potential Difference (V_AB):
  Difference in electric potentials between two points.

It tells how much work per coulomb is required to move a charge between those two points in an electric field.

🔸 Analogy to Circuits

In a circuit, the same concept applies:

• Voltage is like the “push” that drives charges (electrons) to move through a conductor.
• Just as height difference makes water flow, potential difference makes current flow.

That’s why we often say:

“Current flows because of voltage difference.”

✨ Conclusion

Electric potential gives us a sense of how much energy is stored per charge at a point in an electric field, while voltage tells us the difference in that energy between two points.

Understanding this concept is foundational — it connects physics to circuit theory and sets the stage for analyzing analog systems like resistors, capacitors, and transistors in upcoming chapters.

Analog Electronics: Chapter 5 — Electric Charge and Permittivity

Welcome back to the Analog Electronics series!
In this chapter, we dive into one of the most fundamental concepts in the world of electricity — electric charge — the invisible quantity behind every electric and magnetic phenomenon we study.

We’ll also explore Coulomb’s Law and the idea of permittivity, which together help us understand how materials behave when exposed to an electric field — the foundation of capacitors, dielectrics, and even semiconductor behavior.

Let’s get started 👇

⚡ Electric Charge

Electric charge is a fundamental property of matter that causes it to experience a force of attraction or repulsion when placed in an electric or magnetic field. It is one of the most basic and conserved quantities in nature, similar to mass.

Press enter or click to view image in full size

Every atom consists of electrons, protons, and neutrons:

• Mass of electron (me): 9.1 × 10⁻³¹ kg
• Mass of proton (mp): 1.6 × 10⁻²⁷ kg
• Mass of neutron (mn): 1.6 × 10⁻²⁷ kg

Electrons carry a negative charge, while protons carry an equal but positive charge. Neutrons are electrically neutral.

• Charge of electron = −1.6 × 10⁻¹⁹ C
• Charge of proton = +1.6 × 10⁻¹⁹ C

If a proton and an electron are placed 1 cm apart, they experience a force of attraction ≈ 2.3 × 10⁻²⁴ N.

The SI unit of electric charge is Coulomb ©, and the SI unit of force is Newton (N).

🔹 Quantization of Charge

Electric charge is quantized, meaning it exists only in discrete, indivisible packets — not in fractions. The smallest possible unit of charge is that of an electron or proton, represented by e = 1.6 × 10⁻¹⁹ C.

Any observable charge on a body is always an integer multiple of this basic unit:

Q=n×e

where n is an integer.

🔹 Conservation of Charge

Electric charge can neither be created nor destroyed in an isolated system. The total charge before and after any process — whether it’s rubbing, chemical reaction, or nuclear reaction — always remains constant.

Charge may transfer from one body to another, but the net charge of the entire system stays the same.

⚙️ Coulomb’s Law

Coulomb’s Law defines the electrostatic force between two stationary point charges.

It states that:

“The electrostatic force between two charges is directly proportional to the product of their charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.”

Mathematically,

Where:

• F = electrostatic force between charges (in newtons, N)
• q₁, q₂ = magnitudes of the two charges (in coulombs, C)
• r = distance between the charges (in meters, m)
• k = Coulomb’s constant = 8.99 × 1⁰⁹ N·m²/C²

The constant k is related to the permittivity of free space (ε₀) by:

⚙️ Permittivity (ε)

Permittivity is a measure of how easily a material’s internal charges can shift to form tiny dipoles in response to an electric field — or simply, how easily an insulator can be polarized.

There are two types of permittivity:

1. Permittivity in Free Space (ε₀)

In a vacuum (free space), there are no atoms or molecules to polarize.
Even though there is nothing to shift, we still define ε₀ — the absolute permittivity of free space — because:

• It sets the baseline for all electric interactions.
• It defines how strong the electric force is in the absence of any material.
• Coulomb’s Law uses k = 1/(4πε₀) to calculate the force between two charges in empty space.
• It allows us to compare the behavior of materials with free space.

When we put a dielectric (like water or glass) between charges, we compare its permittivity ε to ε₀.

2. Permittivity of a Material (ε)

Permittivity of an insulator or dielectric refers to its ability to polarize when placed in an electric field.

When a dielectric (insulator) is placed in an electric field, charges cannot move freely as in conductors. However, electrons slightly shift opposite to the field, and protons shift slightly in the direction of the field.

This small separation of positive and negative charges forms tiny electric dipoles throughout the material.

The ability of a material to form these dipoles easily is called its permittivity (ε).

• High permittivity: Electrons and nuclei shift more easily → strong dipoles → the material reduces the electric field more.
• Low permittivity: Electrons and nuclei shift less → weak dipoles → the field is reduced less.

🔹 Relative Permittivity (εᵣ)

Relative permittivity (or dielectric constant) is the ratio of a material’s permittivity to that of free space:

It tells us how much the material reduces the electric field compared to vacuum.

🧭 Summary

• Charge is the basic property of matter responsible for all electric effects.
• Coulomb’s Law gives the force between two point charges.
• Permittivity (ε) represents how easily a material polarizes when placed in an electric field.
• Relative permittivity (εᵣ) compares the material’s polarization ability with that of free space.

✨ Closing Thoughts
Understanding electric charge and permittivity forms the foundation for analyzing how electric fields interact with materials — a key principle in designing capacitors, sensors, and semiconductor devices.

Stay tuned for Chapter 6, where we’ll explore the next concept in our Analog Electronics journey!